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III. Heroin manufacture

The complete conversion of raw opium to pure heroin hydrochloride (diacetylmorphine HCl) may be summarized as follows:

Purification of raw opium -->
extraction/purification of morphine from opium -->
conversion of morphine to heroin base -->
purification of heroin base and conversion to hydrochloride salt.
After step 4, diluents and adulterants may be added either by the manufacturer or by parties further along the distribution chain. Also, shortcuts may be taken at steps 2, 3 and 4, and steps 2 and 4 may be eliminated altogether. The process delineated in this section is that observed in Southeast Asia (5), designed to result in nearly pure diacetylmorphine HCl. A brief discussion of how the aforementioned shortcuts bear on the properties of heroin originating from other regions and comments on diluents and adulterants commonly found in seized samples will follow.

1.) Purification of opium.

Raw opium collected from the poppy as described above is placed in an open cooking pot of boiling water. This should dissolve all of the alkaloids in the opium, while solid plant material, soil, twigs, etc. remain undissolved and float to the top of the solution. Solid impurities are scooped out or filtered by straining the mixture though cheesecloth or burlap. The liquid is then re-heated over a low flame, evaporating the water to leave behind a thick, dark paste, which is then dried in the sun. The opium left behind has a putty-like consistency and is generally about 20% lighter (20% more pure) than the raw material. At this point the product may be exported for smoking or eating or consumed locally. This process may be carried out by farmers before shipping for consumption or further processing, or the raw opium may be transported to heroin manufacturing sites where the preparation is undertaken on a larger scale.

2.) Extraction of morphine.

Processed opium is stirred in large drum of boiling water until it has completely dissolved. Slaked lime (calium hydroxide), at about one-fifth the mass of opium (8), (or a fertilzer with a high lime content) is added to the solution. This has the effect of converting morphine, insoluble in cool water, into the soluble salt, calcium morphenate. For the most part, the other alkaloids do not react, and when the mixture is cooled, the morphenate remains in solution, while the other chemicals settle to form a brown sludge at the bottom of the container. (Codeine is somewhat soluble in water and some amount is likely to remain in solution). The calcium morphenate solution is scooped or poured from the drum and filtered and pressed through burlap rice sacks or some other makeshift filtration apparatus. The filtered solution is re-heated, but not boiled, in cooking pots to which ammonium chloride is added at about one-fourth the mass of opium processed (8). After the pH of the solution reaches 8 or 9 it is cooled. Within a few hours, morphine base and any remaining codeine precipitate out of solution and settle to the bottom of the pot. The solution is then poured off through cloth filters, leaving chunks of morphine base on the cloth, which are squeezed dry and set aside to dry further in the sun. The dried crude morphine base is a coffee-colored powder. (A more scrupulous chemist might use ether in the filtration to dissolve any residual codeine out of the base mixture, but this is not reported in accounts of illicit manufacture).

From this point, some manufacturers may proceed directly to step 3. Ideally, however, the crude morphine base is purified by dissolution in dilute hydrochloric (or sufuric) acid, forming a solution of morphine hydrochloride (or sulfate). Activated charcoal is added, and the solution is heated and filtered hot through a fine cloth. The filtration is repeated several times, removing the charcoal and colored impurities with it. The filtrate may be dried in the sun to leave behind morphine hydrochloride, a fine white powder if purification is complete, which may be pressed into 1 kg bricks and transferred for further processing at a remote site. Alternatively, ammonium hydroxide may be added to the morphine HCl solution (or re-dissolved morphine HCl), precipitating morphine base, filtered and dried to form a granular solid (8).

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3.) Conversion of morphine to heroin base.

The key chemical used in the acetylation of morphine to form heroin is acetic anhydride, a colorless, highly combustible liquid with a strong pickle-like odor. Though internationally controlled as a heroin precursor, acetic anhydride also used to synthesize aspirin and chemicals for leather tanning and photography. Morphine hydrochloride or morphine base is mixed with acetic anhydride at about three-times the mass of the former in a stainless steel or enamel pot. The pot lid is tied or clamped on with a damp towel for a gasket (a makeshift reflux apparatus), and the mixture is heated at 85 degrees Celsius (185 degrees F), avoiding boiling. The cooking proceeds for

about 5 hours until all the morphine has dissolved. The pot is opened, and the mixture -- now a solution of water, acetic acid, and diacetylmorphine (heroin) -- is allowed to cool. Water is added to the mixture at three-times the volume of acetic anhydride, and the mixture is stirred. (Optionally, a small amount of chloroform is added. The mixture is allowed to stand for 20 minutes. The chloroform dissolves colored impurities and settles to the bottom of the pot as a red, greasy liquid, and the water layer is carefully poured off.) Activated charcoal is added to the mixture, absorbing solid impurities, which are filtered out repeatedly until the solution is clear. Approximately 2.2 kilograms of sodium carbonate (soda ash) per kilogram of morphine are dissolved in hot water and added solwly to the mixture until effervescence stops, precipitating solid heroin base. Heroin base is filtered with a fine cloth, set aside and heated until dry. The heroin base should be a granular, white powder at this point. If still colored (beige or light brown), the base may be re-dissolved in dilute hydrochloric or citric acid (8), treated with charcoal again, re-precipitated and dried. Alternatively, in some manufacturing regions, the incompletely purified base may be packed and transported for sale (a practice probably typical in Southwest Asia). About 700 grams of heroin base will be produced from each kilogram of morphine.

Optionally, skilled heroin chemists may further purify the base by dissolving it in twice its mass of boiling ethyl alcohol, filtering the solution through a heated funnel into a heated flask. This removes traces of sodium carbonate remaining in the base. The flask is submerged in an ice bath, where it is transformed into a thick white cream. The substance is placed in a pan in a refrigerator with a fan set to blow across the pan to slowly evaporate the alcohol . The paste crystallizes after several hours and is then vacuum filtered. The product, referred to as alcohol morphine base, is re-crystallized heroin base.

4.) Conversion of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride.

For each kilogram of heroin base (or re-crystallized heroin base), 6.6 liters of of ethyl alcohol, 6.6 liters of ether, and 225 milliliters of concentrated hydrochloric acid are measured out. The base is dissolved by heating with one-third of the alcohol and one half of the acid. Another one-third of the acid is stirred in. Next, the remaining acid is added slowly, dropwise, until the product is completely converted to the hydrochloride salt. This result may be confirmed either by observing that a drop of solution evaporates on a glass plate leaving no cloudy residue or by placing a drop of solution on Congo red paper, observing it turn the paper blue. Once the conversion is complete, the remaining alcohol is stirred in. Then half of the ether is added, and the mixture is allowed to stand for 15 minutes. As soon as crystals begin to form in the solution, the remaining ether is added at once, stirred, and the the vessel is covered. The mixture becomes nearly solid after an hour. It is then filtered, and the solids are collected on clean filter paper. Wrapped in the paper, the solid is dried on a wooden tray, usually over lime rock, and dried in the sun. The fully dried product, heroin hydrochloride, is a fine white powder, ready for packing and shipping.